Wang, Zhaozhi ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-8986-0554, Jia, Fuchen ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-1850-7961, Galea, Edwin R. ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0002-0001-6665 and Ewer, John ORCID: https://orcid.org/0000-0003-0609-272X (2026) Predicting toxic species generation resulting from external cladding fires. Fire Safety Journal, 162:104693. ISSN 0379-7112 (Print), 1873-7226 (Online) (doi:10.1016/j.firesaf.2026.104693)

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Abstract

A CFD method to predict the generation of toxic gases produced by burning external cladding is presented. The model and its assumption have been validated using BS 8414 experimental data for two cladding systems with different aluminium composite materials (ACM). The predicted temperatures are in good agreement with the measured data and the predicted toxic gas concentrations follow the measured trends. The model is then used to assess tenability conditions in a target flat and the lobby five floors above the fire origin, in which toxic smoke penetrates the flat via a half-open kitchen window. Only the impact of cladding materials is considered. Simulations indicate that if the target flat occupants commence their evacuation shortly after alarm activation, they are likely to be able to pass through the lobby and safely evacuate. However, if they delay their evacuation by 21 minutes, they are likely to become incapacitated due to inhalation of toxic gases. The PIR contribution to the fractional incapacitating dose (FIN) is approximately half that from ACM PE in the target flat and varies from a third to a half in the target lobby. Furthermore, the HCN contribution to the FIN is minor (less than 5%).

Item Type:	Article
Additional Information:	This paper will be important for our REF submission. The paper describes a CFD fire model simulating fire spread over ACM cladding used in highrise buildings. In this paper, for the first time we predict not only the vertical and horizontal fire spread, but also the toxic gases produced by the spreading fire and ingress of toxic fire products to the inside of the building.
Uncontrolled Keywords:	toxicity, smoke, tenability, CFD, simulation, cladding fire, BS 8414 test
Subjects:	H Social Sciences > HD Industries. Land use. Labor > HD61 Risk Management Q Science > Q Science (General) Q Science > QA Mathematics Q Science > QA Mathematics > QA75 Electronic computers. Computer science
Faculty / School / Research Centre / Research Group:	Faculty of Engineering & Science > School of Computing & Mathematical Sciences (CMS) Faculty of Engineering & Science
Last Modified:	09 Mar 2026 09:32
URI:	https://gala.gre.ac.uk/id/eprint/52616

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